Genetiika

Genetiika is the branch of biology that studies heredity and variation in organisms, focusing on how traits are inherited, how genetic information is stored in DNA, how genes are expressed, and how genetic and environmental factors interact. It spans molecular genetics, population genetics, evolutionary genetics, and applied fields such as medical genetics and agricultural genetics. The term is used in Estonian and many languages to denote genetics.

History of genetiika traces its modern roots to Gregor Mendel’s 19th‑century experiments, which established the basic principles of inheritance. Mendel’s ideas were rediscovered around 1900 and later integrated with the discovery of DNA’s structure in 1953. Advances in molecular biology, including DNA sequencing and PCR, transformed the field in the late 20th century. The Human Genome Project, completed in the early 2000s, and subsequent high‑throughput technologies enabled large‑scale genetic analyses. More recently, genome editing with CRISPR and related tools has opened new possibilities for targeted genetic modifications.

Core concepts and methods include the organization of genetic material into genes on DNA, alleles as variant forms of a gene, and genotype versus phenotype. Gene expression is regulated by cellular machinery and environmental signals. Mutations generate variation, and inheritance can be Mendelian (single-gene effects) or polygenic (many genes contributing). Epigenetics describes heritable changes in gene activity without DNA sequence changes. Population genetics examines how allele frequencies shift due to mutation, selection, drift, and migration.

Applications of genetiika span medicine, agriculture, forensics, and conservation. In medicine, genetics informs diagnosis, prognosis, carrier screening, pharmacogenomics, and gene therapy. In agriculture, it guides breeding and biotechnological improvements. Ethical and social considerations include privacy and consent for genetic information, potential discrimination, and responsible use of gene‑editing technologies, guiding policy and governance.