Cupmarks

Cupmarks are shallow, circular depressions carved into rock surfaces. They are often small, typically a few centimeters in diameter, and may occur singly or in larger clusters. In many cases they are part of broader sculptural schemes known as cup-and-ring markings, where individual cup marks appear alongside rings or connecting grooves. The marks are usually created by pecking or abrading the rock surface with a hammer-like tool.

Distribution and appearance vary, but cupmarks are widely documented in Europe, especially in the British Isles (including Scotland, Ireland, and parts of England and Wales), Brittany, and Iberia, with additional examples known in parts of Scandinavia and other regions. They occur on a range of rock types, including sandstone and granite, and can be found on natural outcrops, standing stones, boulders, or rock faces near prehistoric sites. The arrangement of cups—whether random, linear, or arranged in geometric patterns—often informs interpretations of their purpose.

Dating and function remain subjects of debate. Most cupmarks are thought to date to the late Neolithic to the Bronze Age, though precise dating is difficult due to a lack of associated artefacts and inscriptions. The purpose of cupmarks is not definitively established; prevailing theories propose ritual or religious significance, territorial or clan markers, social or ceremonial gathering places, or symbolic decoration. Some researchers have suggested possible astronomical or calendrical associations, but there is no consensus.

Documentation and preservation are key aspects of study. Field surveys, mapping, and more recently 3D scanning and photogrammetry help record sites before weathering or development impacts their integrity. Cupmarks are typically protected as archaeological sites or scheduled monuments in their respective countries.