1659

1659 was a year marked by political realignments in Europe and ongoing global activity. In the British Isles, the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1658 led to the brief tenure of his son, Richard Cromwell, as Lord Protector. By May 1659, Richard Cromwell resigned, and the Protectorate collapsed. The reassertion of the Rump Parliament and the Army’s influence created a precarious political settlement that helped set the stage for the eventual Restoration of the monarchy the following year.

In Europe, the long conflict between France and Spain reached a decisive conclusion with the Treaty of the Pyrenees. Signed in 1659, the treaty ended the Franco-Spanish War and adjusted borders along the Pyrenees, strengthening France’s position while reshaping the European balance of power. The agreement also included a dynastic marriage arrangement between Louis XIV of France and Maria Teresa of Spain, linking the two crowns.

Beyond Europe, maritime powers continued to pursue colonial expansion and trade. English, Dutch, and French interests remained active in the Caribbean and North America, while Asian and Atlantic trade networks persisted under the era’s competing commercial companies and imperial ambitions. Scientific and cultural life continued to advance in incremental ways, characteristic of mid-17th-century scholarship, with progress in fields such as astronomy, natural philosophy, and cartography, though no single discovery defined the year.

Overall, 1659 stood as a transitional moment, inaugurating a period of political upheaval that would lead to the Restoration in England and contributing to a reshaped European diplomatic landscape after decades of war.