vivisection

Vivisection is the practice of performing operations on living animals for scientific research, medical training, or physiological experimentation. The term commonly refers to invasive procedures that may involve anesthesia or analgesia, but can include any experimental manipulation that causes biological changes in a living organism. In common usage, it contrasts with dissection of non-living specimens or post-mortem studies. The animals used are typically rodents, primates, dogs, cats, rabbits, and others, depending on the study.

Historically, vivisection contributed to advances in anatomy, physiology, pharmacology, and medicine by revealing how organisms function and how drugs affect systems. In the modern era, rising concerns about welfare and questions about translational relevance have led to tighter regulation and ongoing efforts to replace or reduce animal use. Some applications, such as cosmetic testing, have been subjected to increasing restriction or bans in many jurisdictions.

Ethical and scientific debates center on animal welfare, moral status, and whether animal models accurately predict human outcomes. Proponents argue that animal research has yielded essential medical breakthroughs and safety data. Critics point to animal suffering, species differences, and the availability of non-animal methods. The 3Rs framework—Replacement, Reduction, Refinement—advocates minimizing animal use, using alternatives when feasible, reducing numbers, and refining procedures to lessen pain and distress.

Regulatory oversight varies by country. In the United States, oversight under the Animal Welfare Act requires institutional review and humane care. In the European Union, Directive 2010/63/EU governs animal use, with national implementations and licensing. The United Kingdom maintains similar protections under the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act. Increasingly, researchers pair animal studies with non-animal methods, such as in vitro testing, computational models, and organ-on-a-chip technologies, to advance science while reducing animal involvement.