postmodern

Postmodernism, or postmodern culture, is a broad and contested term used to describe a range of artistic, philosophical, and cultural developments that emerged in the mid-20th century as a reaction against modernist ideals of progress, coherence, and universal meaning. It is not a single doctrine but a loose collection of tendencies across disciplines that emphasize plurality, skepticism toward grand narratives, and a suspicion of fixed meanings.

In philosophy and theory, postmodernism questions whether objective knowledge is possible and often situates meaning as culturally constructed and context-dependent. It frequently employs irony, relativism, and self-reflexivity. Key figures include Jean-François Lyotard, who argued for the retreat of grand narratives; Jacques Derrida, who developed deconstruction; Michel Foucault, who analyzed power-knowledge; and Jean Baudrillard, who discussed simulacra and hyperreality.

In art and architecture, postmodernism answers modernism's austerity with eclecticism, pastiche, and play. It challenges the notion of universal form and instead cites historical quotation, consumer imagery, and intermedia hybridity. In architecture, practitioners such as Robert Venturi and Michael Graves revived ornament, irony, and contextual reference, while artists across media embraced quotation and intertextuality.

In literature and film, postmodern works frequently feature metafiction, non-linear narratives, unreliable narrators, and self-referential devices that foreground the act of storytelling. Notable authors associated with postmodern writing include Thomas Pynchon, Don DeLillo, Italo Calvino, and Kathy Acker; filmmakers such as Jean-Luc Godard and David Lynch have been linked to postmodern approaches.

The term remains debated and uneven in scope, with critics arguing it can be diffuse or politically disengaged, while proponents view it as capturing a shift toward pluralism, fragmentation, and media-saturated culture. Its influence continues to be felt in contemporary art, theory, and popular culture, where the legacy of postmodern critique persists alongside renewed interest in modernist concerns.