Foucault

Michel Foucault (1926–1984) was a French philosopher, historian of ideas, and social theorist whose work examined how knowledge, power, and social institutions shape beliefs, practices, and identities. Trained at the École Normale Supérieure, he taught in Paris and held the chair of the history of systems of thought at the Collège de France. His influence extends across philosophy, sociology, anthropology, gender studies, and critical theory.

Foucault developed the methodologies of archaeology and genealogy to analyze the conditions of possibility for knowledge and the emergence of discourses. Archaeology examines historical statements and their rules, while genealogy traces how power relations produce knowledge and subjectivities. Key ideas include discourse as a system of rules that define what can be said; power/knowledge as mutually reinforcing; biopower and governmentality as modern techniques for managing populations; and panopticism as a metaphor for surveillance and control within institutions such as prisons, hospitals, and schools. His major works include The Order of Things (1966), The Archaeology of Knowledge (1969), Discipline and Punish (1975), and The History of Sexuality (begun in 1976).

Foucault’s work challenged universalizing narratives of history and stressed historical contingency, the constructed nature of truths, and the politics of knowledge. His ideas have been influential across the humanities and social sciences but have also sparked critique over methodological rigor, perceived relativism, and ambiguities regarding political action. His legacy continues to shape debates on power, institutions, and the production of subjectivity.