lateCarboniferous

The Late Carboniferous is the second and final epoch of the Carboniferous Period, spanning approximately 323 to 299 million years ago, during the Paleozoic Era. This epoch followed the Early Carboniferous and preceded the Permian Period, marking a critical transition in Earth’s geological and biological history. The Late Carboniferous is often divided into two sub-epochs: the Moscovian (around 315–307 million years ago) and the Kasimovian-Gzhelian (around 307–299 million years ago), though regional variations exist in stratigraphic definitions.

Geologically, the Late Carboniferous was characterized by the assembly of the supercontinent Pangaea, as the continents collided and fused. This tectonic activity led to extensive mountain-building events, particularly in regions that would later form the Appalachian Mountains in North America and the Ural Mountains in Eurasia. The formation of these mountain ranges influenced global climate patterns, contributing to the development of vast coal deposits through the accumulation of organic-rich sediments in swampy lowlands.

The climate of the Late Carboniferous was generally warm and humid, with significant seasonal variations. High levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide facilitated lush plant growth, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. This era saw the dominance of megaphyllous vascular plants, such as ferns, scale trees (Lepidodendron), and club mosses (Lepidophloios), which formed dense forests. These plants played a crucial role in sequestering carbon, contributing to the formation of extensive coal beds that would later be exploited as fossil fuels.

Faunally, the Late Carboniferous was a time of diverse and abundant life. In terrestrial ecosystems, insects reached unprecedented sizes due to higher oxygen levels, with species like the dragonfly Meganeura achieving wingspans of over two feet. Amphibians and early reptiles also thrived, with the latter beginning to diversify into more specialized forms. Marine environments hosted a rich array of life, including early sharks, ray-finned fishes, and mollusks, while coral reefs flourished in shallow seas.

The Late Carboniferous ended with the Carboniferous-Permian extinction event, one of the "Big Five" mass extinctions, which marked the transition to the Permian Period. This event was driven by climate shifts, sea-level changes, and volcanic activity, leading to significant biodiversity loss across multiple ecosystems.