hernia

A hernia is the protrusion of an organ or tissue through an abnormal opening in the body wall that normally contains it. Most commonly, a portion of the intestine pushes through a weakness in the abdominal muscles, creating a visible bulge that may be tender or painless. Hernias are classified by location and cause. Inguinal hernias occur in the groin and are the most frequent type, especially in men. Femoral hernias appear lower in the groin, more often in women. Umbilical hernias develop around the navel, while incisional hernias arise at the site of a previous surgical incision. Less common varieties include hiatal hernias, where part of the stomach moves up through the diaphragm into the chest cavity, and obturator or spigelian hernias in other specific muscle layers.

Risk factors include age‑related muscle weakening, chronic coughing, heavy lifting, constipation, obesity, and previous abdominal surgery. Congenital defects can also predispose individuals to hernias. Symptoms vary; small hernias may cause no discomfort, whereas larger ones can produce pain, a feeling of heaviness, or complications such as bowel obstruction. Incarcerated or strangulated hernias, where blood flow to the trapped tissue is compromised, are surgical emergencies.

Diagnosis is usually clinical, based on physical examination, though imaging studies like ultrasound or CT scans may be employed for confirmation or to assess complications. Treatment depends on size and symptom severity. Observation is acceptable for asymptomatic, small hernias, but surgical repair—either open or laparoscopic—is the definitive therapy for most cases. Most repaired hernias heal well, with recurrence rates lower than 10 % when modern techniques are used.