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Fractures are a common occurrence in materials science and engineering, referring to the separation of a material into two or more pieces under stress. This separation is typically caused by mechanical forces that exceed the material's strength. The study of fracture is crucial for understanding material behavior, predicting failure, and designing safe and reliable structures.

There are several classifications of fracture. Brittle fracture occurs with little or no plastic deformation before failure. The fracture surface in brittle materials is often relatively flat and perpendicular to the applied tensile stress. In contrast, ductile fracture involves significant plastic deformation before the material breaks. Ductile fracture surfaces typically exhibit a rougher texture and may show signs of "necking" or tearing.

The mechanism of fracture initiation and propagation depends on factors such as the material's microstructure, the presence of defects like cracks or voids, and the applied stress conditions. For instance, fatigue fracture occurs under cyclic loading, where repeated stress applications, even below the material's yield strength, can lead to crack growth and eventual failure. Understanding these mechanisms is vital for preventing catastrophic failures in bridges, aircraft, and other critical infrastructure. Researchers employ various techniques, including microscopy and fracture toughness testing, to analyze fracture surfaces and determine the causes of failure.