consociational

Consociationalism, or consociational democracy, is a theory of governance for deeply divided societies that seeks to manage conflict through structured cooperation among the major social groups. Developed by Dutch political scientist Arend Lijphart in the late 1960s and 1970s, the approach argues that stability in plural societies requires formal power-sharing arrangements rather than simple majoritarian rule. The term describes a mode of governance (consociational governance) rather than a specific institutional package and is used to characterize political design that aims to protect group autonomy and participation.

Key features commonly associated with consociationalism include a grand coalition government that represents all significant segments; a mutual veto mechanism to safeguard minority or segmental interests; proportional representation in elections and civil service recruitment to ensure group equality; and segmental autonomy that allows cultural, linguistic, or regional groups to govern themselves in certain spheres. The overarching goal is to create interdependent elites who must collaborate, thereby reducing insecurity and preventing outright domination by any single group.

Applications and examples often cited include Belgium, Switzerland, and the Netherlands historically, as well as Lebanon’s confessional system and certain post-conflict arrangements such as Northern Ireland’s Good Friday Agreement. Critics contend that consociationalism can entrench group identities, foster elite bargaining and gridlock, and hinder majority rule or rapid policy change. It may also be ill-suited to societies lacking persistent social segmentation. Some scholars view it as a descriptive framework for particular cases rather than a universal prescription, and contrast it with centripetal or integrationist approaches that seek cross-cutting incentives.