appetites

Appetites refer to the desires or motivations to eat and are influenced by a combination of physiological signals, cognitive processes, and environmental cues. They are distinct from hunger, which denotes the physiological need for nutrients; appetite is the subjective drive to eat, often fueled by palatability, memories, social context, and available food cues.

The regulation of appetite involves complex interactions between the gut, the brain, and the environment. Hormones such as ghrelin stimulate appetite, while others like leptin, peptide YY, and GLP-1 contribute to satiety. The hypothalamus integrates these signals with reward pathways involving dopamine, linking eating to both energy balance and the pleasure of eating. Circadian and seasonal rhythms also modulate appetite.

Appetite can be categorized into homeostatic and hedonic components. Homeostatic appetite arises from energy balance needs, whereas hedonic appetite is driven by the sensory pleasure of food and is strongly influenced by taste, variety, and cues in the surrounding environment. Specific cravings, including salt appetite, reflect additional regulatory mechanisms.

Individual variation in appetite is common and shaped by factors such as age, sex, body composition, health status, medications, and genetics. Cultural norms and exposure to food environments also influence what, when, and how much people eat.

Dysregulation of appetite is associated with a range of conditions, including obesity and eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder. Management often involves behavioral strategies, nutritional guidance, and, in some cases, pharmacological or medical interventions. In modern societies, abundant food cues and marketing can amplify hedonic appetite, contributing to fluctuating eating patterns.