Stigma

Stigma is a social process in which individuals or groups are devalued based on a perceived difference that is considered socially unacceptable or deviant. The term stems from the Greek stigma meaning a mark or brand; in sociology it was popularized by Erving Goffman to describe how “spoiled” identities are managed in everyday interaction. Stigma operates through labeling, stereotyping, separation, status loss, and discrimination, often within hierarchies of power and status.

Stigma can be categorized in several ways. Enacted stigma refers to actual experiences of discrimination and mistreatment. Felt or perceived stigma is the awareness of negative beliefs about a devalued group, and anticipated stigma is the expectation that future discrimination will occur. Internalized or self-stigma occurs when individuals adopt negative beliefs about themselves. Courtesy stigma, or stigma by association, affects people who are linked to stigmatized individuals, such as family members.

Stigma is shaped by cultural norms, institutional policies, and social structures, and it can be intersectional, with overlapping stigmas related to race, gender, disability, health status, sexuality, and other attributes. The consequences include reduced access to care, social isolation, lower self-esteem, delayed treatment, and poorer health and economic outcomes.

Measurement and research use a variety of scales and qualitative methods to capture different dimensions, such as perceived stigma, experienced stigma, and internalized stigma, across domains like mental illness, HIV, obesity, and disability.

Efforts to reduce stigma combine contact-based and educational interventions, mass media campaigns, language reforms, and policy changes that protect rights and promote inclusive practices within institutions and communities.