Neanderthals

Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) were an extinct species or subspecies of archaic humans who lived in Europe and western Asia from about 400,000 to 40,000 years ago. They are the closest known relatives of Homo sapiens, with whom they shared a common ancestor roughly 500,000 to 600,000 years ago. In some classifications, Neanderthals are treated as a subspecies of Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis); most current practice treats them as a separate species, Homo neanderthalensis.

Neanderthals had robust bodies adapted to cold climates: relatively short limbs, strong musculature, and a broad chest. Facial features included a prominent brow ridge, elongated midface, and a large nasal aperture. Brain size was comparable to, and sometimes larger than, that of modern humans, though brain organization differed. They used their senses and motor skills effectively for hunting and foraging.

They crafted Mousterian stone tools, used fire, and hunted large mammals such as bison and mammoths. Evidence suggests clothing, shelter, and the use of pigments. Some sites show burial practices and symbolic items, indicating complex behavior. Their toolkits evolved later to include more blade-like implements and hafted tools.

Modern humans and Neanderthals overlapped in time and space in Europe and western Asia. Genetic data show interbreeding, leaving Neanderthal DNA in most non-African populations today, typically about 1-2% of the genome, with regional variation. Introgressed genes influence skin and hair traits and immune responses among others.

Neanderthals disappeared around 40,000 years ago. The reasons are debated, including climatic pressures, demographic decline, and competition or assimilation with expanding Homo sapiens. The first Neanderthal fossils were identified in 1856 from the Neander Valley in Germany, giving them their name, Neanderthals.