Neanderthal

Neanderthal, or Homo neanderthalensis, is an extinct species or subspecies of archaic humans whose remains are found primarily in Europe and western Asia. They lived from about 400,000 to 40,000 years ago, overlapping for thousands of years with early modern humans in many regions before disappearing.

Neanderthals were anatomically distinct from modern humans, characterized by a robust, stocky build, a prominent brow ridge, and a projecting midface. Their brain size was large and varied similarly to that of modern humans. Their physical form and skeletal remains reflect adaptations to cold climates and physically demanding lifeways.

Their culture included the manufacture of Mousterian stone tools, with Levallois and other flake-based technologies. They used fire and hunted a range of large animals, and there is evidence—though debated—of symbolic behavior such as personal ornaments and pigment use. Evidence for complex language is indirect but supported by anatomical and archaeological findings.

Genetic data show that Neanderthals contributed DNA to non-African modern human populations, reflecting interbreeding after modern humans left Africa. Today, about 1–2% of the genomes of many people outside Africa are of Neanderthal origin, with certain gene variants linked to immune response, skin, and hair traits.

The initial discovery of Neanderthal remains occurred in 1856 in the Neander Valley in Germany. The fossils led to the designation Homo neanderthalensis, with ongoing research refining understanding of their biology, behavior, and relationship to Homo sapiens. They disappeared around 40,000 years ago due to a combination of climate changes, competition, and demographic factors.