Napoleon

Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a French military leader and statesman who rose during the French Revolution and became Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1814, and again briefly in 1815 during the Hundred Days. Born in Ajaccio, Corsica, he trained as an artillery officer and gained early renown in campaigns in Italy and Egypt.

After achieving military success, he orchestrated the coup of 18 Brumaire (9 November 1799) that removed the Directory and established the Consulate. In 1804 he crowned himself emperor and began a program of centralization, legal reform, and administrative reorganization. The Napoleonic Code (1804) codified civil law, and he restructured education, the administration, the tax system, and the Bank of France.

Europe-wide, his forces dominated much of the continent through a series of campaigns. Notable victories occurred at Austerlitz (1805), Jena (1806), and Friedland (1807). The Continental System sought to isolate Britain economically, while the Peninsular War (1808–1814) tied down large French forces. Naval defeat at Trafalgar (1805) limited naval dominance.

The 1812 invasion of Russia ended disastrously for France, contributing to a coalition that compelled his abdication in 1814 and exile to Elba. He briefly returned in 1815 during the Hundred Days, but was defeated at Waterloo and exiled to Saint Helena, where he died in 1821.

Napoleon’s legacy includes the Napoleonic Code, the centralization of state power, and administrative and educational reforms; his conquests also sparked nationalist movements and redrew European borders.