1821

1821 was a year marked by widespread political change and the consolidation of national identities. In Europe, the post-Napoleonic order continued to shape governance under the influence of the Holy Alliance, while in the Americas and the eastern Mediterranean waves of independence movements reshaped maps and power relations.

Mexico: The insurgent movement culminated in the Plan of Iguala on February 24, 1821, which proposed Mexican independence under a constitutional monarchy, and the Treaty of Córdoba with Spain on August 24, 1821, which confirmed independence and established the framework for the Mexican empire.

Venezuela: The decisive Battle of Carabobo on June 24, 1821 secured the country’s independence from Spain as part of Simón Bolívar’s campaigns in northern South America.

Peru: Independence was proclaimed on July 28, 1821 by José de San Martín and his allies, continuing the campaigns against royalist forces and shaping the country’s move toward a republican framework.

Central America: The provinces of Central America declared independence from Spain on September 15, 1821, laying the groundwork for the later formation of the United Provinces of Central America.

Greece: The Greek War of Independence began in 1821 with uprisings in the Peloponnese and other regions on March 25, 1821, followed by a protracted struggle that would lead to an independent Greek state in the following decade.

Napoleon: Napoleon Bonaparte died in exile on Saint Helena on May 5, 1821.