Inquisitions

Inquisitions were organized church courts established by the Catholic Church in medieval and early modern Europe to identify, try, and punish individuals accused of heresy or other doctrinal offenses. They operated at varying scales and with different legal forms across regions, and their structures and methods evolved over time.

The most widely known inquisitorial bodies include the Medieval Inquisition (begun in the 1230s to suppress heresy in Western Christendom), the Roman Inquisition (the Holy Office, established in 1542 to address doctrinal deviation within Catholic lands), and national versions such as the Spanish Inquisition (1478–1834) and the Portuguese Inquisition (1536–1821/1829). While often described collectively as “inquisitions,” each had distinct procedures, jurisdictions, and historical contexts.

Procedures typically involved local tribunals assembling evidence, questioning suspects, and hearing witnesses. Denunciations could be made by laypeople or officials, sometimes leading to formal trials. In some periods and places, torture was permitted to extract confessions, though the use of coercion varied widely. Penalties ranged from penance and restrictions on movement to confiscation of property and imprisonment; execution was possible but usually carried out by secular authorities following a verdict from an inquisitorial court.

Aims centered on identifying and suppressing heresy, preserving doctrinal unity, and maintaining social order within Catholic realms. In practice, inquisitions have been the subject of significant controversy, criticisms of coercive methods, and debates about targeting minority or converted populations.

By the 18th and 19th centuries, many inquisitorial systems were reformed or dissolved. The Roman Inquisition endured in a revised form until the 19th century, and the Holy Office was reorganized in the 20th century as the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. The term remains a historical reference in studies of church authority and legal history.