ICBMs

ICBMs, or intercontinental ballistic missiles, are long-range ballistic missiles designed to deliver warheads across continents. By convention, ICBMs have a range exceeding about 5,500 kilometers and are typically launched from land-based silos or road-mobile launchers. They are multi-stage rockets that lift off, burn through a boost phase, travel on a ballistic trajectory through space, and re-enter the atmosphere to strike a target with a warhead.

Guidance systems for ICBMs are usually inertial, often augmented by satellite navigation or other sensors to improve accuracy. Warheads can be single or multiple; modern systems commonly employ multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs) to strike several targets with a single missile. Propulsion is generally solid-fuel or liquid-fuel; solid-fuel designs offer quick launch capability and simpler logistics, while liquid-fuel systems historically allowed higher performance but require more complex handling.

ICBMs have been central to strategic deterrence since the Cold War. They emerged in the late 1950s, with both the United States and the Soviet Union developing and deploying competing systems. Over time, modernization has emphasized greater range, accuracy, survivability, and the ability to carry multiple warheads. In strategic doctrine, ICBMs form a key leg of the nuclear triad, alongside submarine-launched ballistic missiles and strategic bombers. Arms-control agreements have sought to limit deployed numbers and cap capabilities, though modernization programs continue in several states, reflecting ongoing debates over verification, safety, and deterrence principles.