Filípicas

Filípicas, or Philippics, is a term used in classical rhetoric to designate a sequence or collection of speeches that denounce and oppose a political leader, policy, or danger to public liberty. The name derives from the Greek philippikai, literally “speeches against Philip,” and is associated with late ancient orations that publically warned against the rise of a powerful adversary. The label was later applied to related rhetorical works in Latin as philippicae, notably by Cicero.

The prototype of the genre is Demosthenes’ Philippics, a series of speeches delivered before the Athenians between roughly 351 and 341 BCE warning about Philip II of Macedon. These orations argue for national unity, vigilance, and military preparedness in the face of external threat, and they articulate a broader ethical stance about democracy and civic duty. Although not all texts survive in full, the Philippics are valued for their political psychology, persuasive technique, and as a crucial source for understanding Athenian political culture and Hellenistic geopolitics.

In Roman rhetoric, Cicero composed a quartet of Philippics (roughly 44–43 BCE) to denounce Mark Antony and defend the Republic’s constitutional order. These speeches combine invective with appeals to tradition, republican virtue, and lawful authority, and they influenced later debates on power, tyranny, and political legitimacy. The Philippics as a genre thus encompass both historical polemics against concrete figures and a broader model for mobilizing opposition through rhetorical craft.

Today, the term is often used more loosely to describe any vehement, public denunciation of a rival or policy, reflecting the enduring association of the Philippics with forceful political critique.