Ballistics

Ballistics is the scientific study of the motion of projectiles. It covers how projectiles such as bullets, artillery shells, arrows, and missiles behave from ignition to impact. Ballistics is commonly subdivided into internal, external, and terminal ballistics, and it draws on physics, engineering, and materials science to predict performance and guide design.

Internal ballistics analyzes the processes inside the firearm during propulsion, from trigger pull to bullet exit. It includes the combustion of propellant, chamber pressure, bore geometry, throat and rifling, propellant burn rate, and how these factors determine muzzle velocity, pressure curves, and barrel wear.

External ballistics studies the projectile’s flight after exit. It models forces such as gravity, aerodynamic drag, lift, wind, and buoyancy, along with projectile stability provided by spin from rifling. It uses concepts like ballistic coefficient, Mach number, subsonic and supersonic regimes, and environmental conditions to predict trajectory and point of impact.

Terminal ballistics examines the behavior of the projectile upon impact with a target, including penetration, deformation, fragmentation, yaw, and energy transfer. It varies with target material (soft tissue, ballistic gel, armor) and with projectile design (expanding, pointed, armor-piercing).

Forensic ballistics applies ballistics to crime investigation, linking recovered bullets or cartridge cases to weapons and reconstructing shooting events. Ballistic testing uses chronographs, radar, high-speed imaging, and standardized test firings to characterize performance and validate models.

Historically, ballistics developed from artillery and archery into a core discipline of modern firearms engineering. It informs military and law enforcement applications, hunting and sport shooting, and safety testing, while continually integrating advances in materials science, computational modeling, and measurement techniques.