Altruism

Altruism is the act or behavior of concern for the welfare of others, often at a cost or risk to the actor. In everyday language it implies selfless motivation, while in scientific discussions definitions distinguish between motivation and outcome. Psychological altruism refers to helping due to a genuine desire to benefit others, even when it provides no direct reward. Biological or evolutionary altruism refers to actions that benefit others or their genes, which may occur despite personal costs.

Normative or ethical altruism is a philosophical position that people ought to act for the good of others. In biology, altruism is analyzed through mechanisms such as kin selection, reciprocity, and group selection, which can explain why organisms help others at a cost to themselves.

Mechanisms behind altruistic behavior include empathy, moral emotions, and reputational concerns. Reciprocal altruism relies on mutual aid over time; indirect reciprocity uses social reputation to sustain cooperation. The empathy-altruism hypothesis proposes that empathic concern can produce helping that is not solely self-serving. In evolutionary theory, Hamilton's rule compares relatedness, benefit to the recipient, and cost to the actor.

Examples abound: charitable giving, organ donation, risk-taking to save others, and cooperative acts within communities. Altruism is observed in humans and in other animals, especially where kinship or social structure promotes cooperation.

Debates center on whether true altruism exists. Some argue that all acts are rooted in self-interest or evolutionary advantage; others contend that genuinely altruistic acts occur and can be studied independently of motive. Researchers use experiments and cross-cultural studies to investigate helping, cooperation, and moral behavior.