1860s

The 1860s refers to the decade spanning 1860 through 1869. It was a period of major political upheaval, war, and rapid modernization that shaped many regions around the world.

In the United States, the decade is dominated by the Civil War (1861–1865). Key campaigns and battles, such as Gettysburg and Vicksburg in 1863, helped determine the war’s outcome. The Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 signaled a shift toward abolition, and the Thirteenth Amendment, ratified in 1865, formally ended slavery in the United States. Lincoln’s assassination in 1865 ushered in an era of Reconstruction aimed at redefining civil rights and reintegrating Confederate states.

Internationally, the decade saw significant national unification and reform. Italy moved toward its unified kingdom, proclaimed in 1861, with further territorial gains following the 1866 war outcomes. Russia implemented emancipation of the serfs in 1861 and began limited reforms. Britain passed the Reform Act of 1867, expanding the electorate. In Japan, the Meiji Restoration began in 1868, leading to centralization and rapid modernization after the end of the Tokugawa shogunate. The Austro-Prussian War of 1866 reshaped Central European power relations and paved the way for a northern German empire.

Technological and infrastructural developments linked distant regions more closely. The first successful transatlantic telegraph cable was completed in 1866, while the Suez Canal, opened in 1869, connected the Mediterranean to the Red Sea and shortened routes between Europe and Asia. Railways expanded, and industrial output increased in many areas, supporting broader globalization.

Overall, the 1860s were a turning point decade, marked by conflict, emancipation, national consolidation, and accelerating modernization.