1861

1861 was a year of significant political change and conflict in several parts of the world. In the United States, following the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860, several Southern states seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America. The Confederate States were officially organized in February 1861, and Lincoln was inaugurated as president on March 4. The war began in earnest with the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor on April 12–13. The conflict expanded quickly, with major early engagements such as the First Battle of Bull Run on July 21. A diplomatic crisis, known as the Trent Affair, arose later in 1861 when Union ships intercepted a British steamship carrying Confederate envoys, nearly provoking war with Britain before a resolution in 1862.

In Russia, the Emancipation Reform of 1861 marked a landmark shift in social policy, as serfdom was abolished and millions of peasants gained personal freedom. The reform, pursued under Tsar Alexander II, initiated a broader program of modernization and restructuring of rural land tenure.

In Italy, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed on March 17, 1861, unifying a number of independent states under Victor Emmanuel II. The proclamation represented a decisive step in the Italian unification process, with unification continuing in the following years to consolidate the modern Italian state.

Beyond these headline events, 1861 saw ongoing political realignments and reforms across various regions as nations addressed questions of sovereignty, modernization, and conflict that would shape the decade ahead.