troubadours

Troubadours were medieval lyric poets and composers who wrote in Occitan and performed in the courts of Occitania, roughly the southern half of present-day France, with influence also in parts of Italy and northern Spain. They flourished from the late 11th century into the 13th century, shaping a distinctive culture centered on poetry set to music. The craft was known as trobar, and the tradition produced a rich body of vernacular lyric that later influenced European poetry.

The repertoire of forms includes several principal genres. The canso is the core love song, often celebrating unattainable or idealized love. The sirventes addresses political, moral, or historical themes with a more impassioned or satirical tone. Tenson and partimen are debate poems in which two poets argue a point or present a challenge. The alba is a dawn song in which lovers part at daybreak. In the later period, the planh emerged as a lament for the dead. Common themes include courtly love, chivalry, personal virtue, and political commentary.

Performance and transmission were key to troubadour culture. Poems were typically sung with instruments such as the lute, vielle, or psaltery, and were circulated in manuscript songbooks known as chansonniers. Although many works survive only in writing, their popularity in live performance helped spread Occitan literary culture across medieval Europe.

Notable troubadours include Bernart de Ventadorn, Arnaut Daniel, Gaucelm Faidit, Marcabru, and Jaufré Rudel. There were also female poets, known as trobairitz, such as the Comtessa de Dia (Beatriz de Dia), who contributed to the corpus in notable ways. The troubadour tradition declined in the 13th century, affected by the Albigensian Crusade and political shifts, but it left a lasting legacy on vernacular poetry and the concept of courtly love.