supernaturalism

Supernaturalism is a position in metaphysics and epistemology that posits realities, beings, or causes that lie beyond the natural world and are not subject to its laws. Proponents typically hold that there exist supernatural entities such as gods, spirits, or souls, as well as events such as miracles that cannot be fully explained by natural causes alone. The term is used across religious, philosophical, and cultural contexts to describe belief in transcendent realities.

Historically, supernatural beliefs appear in ancient religions and in the theistic traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, where deities and miracles are conceived as active agents in the world. In medieval and scholastic philosophy, theology sought to reconcile faith with reason, while Enlightenment critiques raised questions about the evidentiary basis and testability of supernatural claims. In more recent centuries, spiritualism and various paranormal movements expanded discussions of life after death, spirits, and extraordinary phenomena.

Variants of supernaturalism include classical theism (an all-powerful, all-knowing creator who acts in history), deism (a creator who does not intervene in natural affairs), and panentheistic or pantheistic views (the divine as immanent in or identical with the universe). Some forms emphasize personal religious experience or immortality, while others focus on philosophical arguments for or against the existence of the supernatural.

Supernaturalism is often contrasted with naturalism, especially in science, which relies on methodological naturalism and empirical testability. Some philosophers argue that supernatural explanations can be meaningful in addressing questions of meaning, purpose, and morality, while others insist that extraordinary claims require proportionally strong evidence and clear criteria for falsification.

Critics challenge the evidentiary basis for supernatural claims, noting issues of verification, falsifiability, and bias. Supporters respond by appeals to testimony, transformative experience, or the coherence of religious worldviews within their cultural contexts.