nonproliferation

Nonproliferation refers to international efforts to prevent the spread of weapons of mass destruction and the materials, technologies, and know-how used to develop them. The term is most often applied to nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons and to the delivery systems that can carry them, but it also encompasses related dual-use goods and technologies that could enable proliferation. Nuclear nonproliferation is the best-developed component. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), opened for signature in 1968 and entering into force in 1970, is the central legal framework. It rests on three pillars: nonproliferation, disarmament, and the peaceful use of nuclear energy. States party commit to refrain from acquiring nuclear weapons, undertake measures toward disarmament, and cooperate in peaceful nuclear technology under safeguards. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) verifies compliance through safeguards agreements and inspections. Export-control regimes such as the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) coordinate controls on sensitive nuclear exports, while the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) seeks to ban all nuclear tests, though it has not yet entered into force. Proposals for a Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty (FMCT) have faced negotiations challenges. Other components include chemical and biological nonproliferation measures. The Australia Group coordinates export controls on chemical and biological agents and related equipment; the Wassenaar Arrangement manages dual-use and conventional arms transfers. The Proliferation Security Initiative and various sanctions regimes are used to interdict illicit transfers and pressure violators. Regional and bilateral agreements supplement global instruments. Nonproliferation policy is supported by United Nations Security Council resolutions, regional organizations, and national legislation. Effective implementation requires robust export controls, transparent reporting, verification, and sustained international diplomacy. Despite progress since the Cold War, challenges persist, including gaps in verification, illicit procurement networks, rapid advances in dual-use technology, and geopolitical tensions that can hinder cooperation. Ongoing negotiations and reforms aim to strengthen the legal architecture and enforcement mechanisms.