mountains

Mountains are natural elevations rising prominently above surrounding terrain, with local relief and significant altitude. They often feature rugged terrain, steep slopes, and a distinct ecological gradient from base to summit. There is no universal height threshold; different agencies use different criteria, but a common convention is a rise of at least 300 meters above adjacent areas or a prominent high point relative to surroundings.

Most mountains form by tectonic forces at convergent or divergent plate boundaries. Orogeny can uplift rock through compression, thrust faulting, and folding; volcanism can create volcanic mountains. Erosion and uplift combine over millions of years to sculpt peaks, ridges, and valleys. Mountain types include fold mountains (resulting from horizontal compression), fault-block mountains (from vertical faulting), and volcanic mountains (built by eruptive activity). Some mountains are remnants of ancient ranges; others are formed in ongoing tectonic activity.

Geologically diverse, mountains host igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Erosion, glaciers, wind, and rivers shape features such as horns, cirques, aretes, and hanging valleys. Climate is strongly influenced by altitude, producing vegetation zones from forests to alpine tundra, with rich biodiversity and endemism in many ranges. Orographic lift also affects weather patterns and regional precipitation.

Mountains influence human life through water resources, tourism, and cultural symbolism. They pose hazards including landslides, avalanches, glacial outburst floods, and earthquakes. Mountain research informs geology, climatology, ecology, and resource management.