dhimmi

Dhimmi is a historical term in Islamic law describing a non-Muslim living within an Islamic state who is granted protection in exchange for acceptance of certain political and legal conditions. The term derives from Arabic dhimma, meaning protection or guarantee. The category primarily applied to ahl al-dimma, the People of the Book, notably Jews and Christians, and also to Zoroastrians and others recognized as protected non-Muslims. In many periods, dhimmis paid the jizya, a per-capita tax, and were exempt from military service, while still retaining security and personal safety under Muslim rule.

Dhimmis retained defined rights and duties, including protection of life and property and limited religious practice, but their civil and public status was often constrained. They typically observed certain legal and social restrictions, such as dress codes or limits on public worship in ways that varied by era and place. Personal status matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance for dhimmis were often handled by their own religious communities under their own laws, within the overarching framework of the state’s authority.

Practically, the dhimmi concept evolved over time. In the Ottoman Empire, a formal millet system allowed non-Muslim communities some degree of internal autonomy and recognition within a composite empire, while subject to taxes and overall loyalty to the sultan. In other Islamic states, arrangements differed widely, with periods of more tolerance or more restriction.

Today, the dhimma as a legal category is largely obsolete in modern Muslim-majority states. The term is mainly of historical interest, though it remains a topic of scholarly debate and political discourse in discussions of minority rights and religious coexistence.