sultan

A sultan is a title used for the ruler of a sultanate, particularly in several Islamic states. The word comes from Arabic sultan meaning authority, rule, or power. The title emerged in the 10th century, used by the Buyids and other dynasties to denote sovereignty, distinct from the caliph, who was the religious leader. The sultan held political and military authority, often controlling the administration, law, and military; religious authority could be separate or integrated.

Regionally, sultans ruled across the Middle East and Central Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and Southeast Asia. Notable examples include the Ottoman sultans ruling from Istanbul (later also claiming caliphal authority), the Delhi Sultanate in northern India (13th–16th centuries), and various sultanates in the Malay world and in Oman and Brunei. The title often accompanied a hereditary or elective line of succession, in some cases accompanied by the title emir or malik in other contexts.

In the modern era, several states retain sultanates as constitutional or ceremonial monarchies. Brunei is ruled by a sultan who serves as head of state and government. In Oman, the sultan is the head of state and head of government. In Malaysia, several states are led by hereditary sultans who participate in federal governance. The term remains a historical and contemporary indicator of sovereignty and governance in various Muslim communities.