sultanate

A sultanate is a political territory ruled by a sultan, a title used for a Muslim sovereign. The word derives from the Arabic sultan, meaning authority or power, and historically signified a ruler with both secular and, in many cases, religious legitimacy. In practice, sultanates have ranged from absolute monarchies to constitutional monarchies and have varied in their fusion of political and religious authority.

Historically, sultanates arose in the medieval Islamic world in the Middle East and North Africa and later spread to the Indian subcontinent and maritime Southeast Asia. They often formed as independent states after the decline of larger caliphates or as successor polities within broader Islamic realms. The title coexisted with other royal styles such as emir, malik, and shah, and its prestige was often linked to military leadership and religious custodianship.

Governance within a sultanate is centered on the sultan as head of state and, in many cases, as commander of the armed forces. In some periods and places, the sultan also held religious authority or applied Islamic law. Succession was usually hereditary, though elective or semi-elective arrangements occurred in certain regions. In the modern era, most sultanates function as constitutional or ceremonial monarchies, with real political power resting in elected or appointed bodies and ministers. A few, like Brunei and Oman, retain strong or formal monarchic authority.

Notable contemporary examples include the Sultanate of Brunei, an absolute monarchy, and the Sultanate of Oman, also an absolute monarchy. In Malaysia, several states retain hereditary sultans who serve as ceremonial heads of state within a federal constitutional framework. See also monarchy, emirate, caliphate.