dhimi

Dhimmi is a term in Islamic jurisprudence referring to a non-Muslim living under Muslim rule who is granted protection and certain rights in exchange for acknowledging the authority of the Muslim state. The concept originated in early Islamic governing practice and was developed in classical fiqh and treaties, with the scope and rules varying across time and place. Traditionally, dhimmi communities included Jews, Christians, and other groups regarded as “People of the Book,” as well as some other non-Muslim communities in different regions and periods.

Dhimmi status typically included safety for life and property, freedom to practice one’s religion within certain limits, and a degree of personal autonomy in civil matters under communal or religious law. In return, dhimmis were required to acknowledge the Muslim political authority, pay a special tax known as the jizya, and in some periods satisfy additional restrictions. They were generally exempt from military service and could own property and engage in commerce; however, they often faced legal and social disabilities relative to Muslims, such as restrictions on public display of religious symbols, limits on religious leadership, and, in some eras, limitations on public office or certain occupations.

The application of dhimmi status varied widely by era and polity, from the relatively inclusive arrangements of some medieval Islamic states to more stratified or restrictive practices in others. In the modern era, many Muslim-majority states abolished jizya and reformed or repealed dhimmi-related regulations as part of broader legal and social reforms. The concept remains a topic of historical and scholarly discussion rather than a contemporary legal category in most countries.