crystallizing

Crystallizing refers to the process by which a solid phase with a highly ordered, repeating arrangement of atoms or molecules—a crystal—forms from a supersaturated solution, a melt, or a gas. The process typically involves two steps: nucleation, the initial formation of small ordered clusters, and crystal growth, the enlargement of these clusters into larger crystals.

Nucleation can be primary, occurring spontaneously in a homogeneous solution, or secondary, arising on surfaces or existing crystals. Growth proceeds as molecules add to lattice sites, influenced by temperature, concentration, solvent, impurities, and agitation. Supersaturation is a driving force; too little yields no crystals, too much can produce many small particles.

Common crystallizing methods include evaporative crystallization, where solvent is removed to increase supersaturation; cooling crystallization, where lowering temperature raises supersaturation; and antisolvent crystallization, where adding a poor solvent triggers crystallization. Seeding or controlled nucleation can improve crystal size and uniformity.

Crystallization can produce different crystal forms (polymorphs) and shapes (habit). Impurities can alter nucleation and growth rates, leading to broad size distributions. Controlling factors such as seed crystallization, temperature profile, and stirring is important for reproducibility and purity.

Applications span purification in chemical synthesis, pharmaceutical manufacturing, and food processing, as well as materials science, where crystalline solids are required for electronic, optical, or mechanical properties. Characterization often uses X-ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, and melting point to assess structure and purity.