crucifixion

Crucifixion is an ancient method of execution in which a person is nailed or bound to a cross or upright stake and left to die, typically in a public location. The practice is associated with the Greco-Roman world and earlier Persian traditions; the term crucifixion comes from Latin crucifixio, while the Greek word stauros refers to the stake or cross used for the act.

Across cultures, crucifixion took several forms, including a simple vertical stake (crux simplex) and a cross with a crossbeam (crux immissa). Other configurations described in historical sources include T-shaped and gamma-shaped forms. In classical Rome, crucifixion was primarily employed for slaves, rebels, and non-citizens as a deterrent; Roman citizens were generally exempt, though exceptions occurred.

The procedure often began with scourging, followed by forcing the condemned to carry the crossbeam (patibulum) to the execution site. The victim could be affixed by nails or cords and left hanging until death, which typically resulted from a combination of shock, dehydration, and asphyxia. Death could occur within hours or extend over days. Guards sometimes accelerated death by breaking the legs of the crucified; in other cases, additional actions ensured the person did not survive.

Crucifixion is attested in various Mediterranean sources and is one of the best-known forms of ancient execution in Christian, literary, and historical contexts. The practice declined in late antiquity and largely disappeared in the early medieval period, becoming a historical symbol of punishment and, in religious traditions, a central narrative element.