chipfabricage

Chip fabrication, or semiconductor fabrication, is the set of processes used to produce integrated circuits on semiconductor wafers. The process begins with high-purity silicon wafers, sliced from ingots and cleaned in a cleanroom. The wafers pass through repeated cycles of deposition, photolithography, etching, doping, and planarization to build transistor structures and interconnections.

During photolithography, a light-sensitive photoresist is applied and selectively exposed through a mask. After development, etching removes exposed material, or dopants are introduced by diffusion or ion implantation. Layer deposition, via chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, or atomic layer deposition, lays down insulating, semiconducting, or conducting films. Planarization by chemical-mechanical polishing smooths surfaces for subsequent layers. Metallization forms interconnects, typically copper or aluminum, insulated by dielectric films. The process often includes dozens to hundreds of patterned layers, each contributing to device function.

After the circuit layers are completed, the wafers are diced into individual chips, tested at wafer and package stages, and then packaged for integration into products. Final testing assesses electrical performance, timing, power, and reliability, with burn-in and stress testing for high-reliability devices.

Manufacturing is concentrated in dedicated semiconductor foundries and integrated device manufacturers. Major players include TSMC, Samsung, GlobalFoundries, and Intel. The term process node describes feature sizes and performance targets, with modern processes characterized by nanoscale features and complex architectures. Process development emphasizes yield, defect control, variability, power efficiency, and cost. Cleanroom environments, defect monitoring, and environmental controls regulate contamination; industry standards and supplier ecosystems support design and manufacturing interoperability.