biopsies

A biopsy is the removal of living tissue for examination, typically to diagnose disease, determine its type and grade, guide treatment, or monitor response. Biopsies can target almost any organ or lesion and range from minimally invasive procedures to surgical operations.

Common methods include needle biopsy (fine-needle aspiration, FNA; core needle biopsy), surgical biopsy (incisional or excisional), endoscopic biopsy, and punch biopsy for dermatologic lesions. Image-guided approaches use ultrasound, computed tomography, or magnetic resonance imaging to sample deep or difficult-to-reach sites.

Specimens are processed in pathology laboratories. Some samples are used for cytology, analyzing individual cells, while others undergo histology to examine tissue architecture. Ancillary techniques such as immunohistochemistry and molecular testing may be employed to identify markers or genetic mutations. Rapid on-site evaluation can assess specimen adequacy during the procedure.

Indications include diagnosing cancer, determining tumor type and stage, identifying infections or inflammatory conditions, and obtaining material for genetic or molecular testing that informs treatment decisions.

Risks depend on the technique but commonly include bleeding, infection, and pain. Injury to nearby structures is possible. Non-diagnostic samples or sampling errors may require a repeat biopsy or alternative testing.

Advances emphasize less invasive methods and image guidance. Noninvasive imaging and liquid biopsy techniques, such as analysis of circulating tumor DNA, can supplement traditional biopsy, but tissue sampling remains the standard reference in many diagnostic pathways.