alveolarians

Alveolarians, or Alveolata, are a major grouping of mostly unicellular eukaryotes within the SAR supergroup. The clade includes the phyla Dinoflagellata (dinoflagellates), Ciliophora (ciliates), and Apicomplexa (sporozoans). The defining feature is the presence of cortical alveoli, small membrane-bound sacs beneath the plasma membrane that contribute to cell structure.

Organismal features vary widely among alveolates. Dinoflagellates commonly have a theca, a cellulose-rich outer covering, and two flagella; many are photosynthetic due to secondary plastids, while others are mixotrophic or heterotrophic. Ciliates are notable for numerous cilia and a complex cortex with two types of nuclei—the macronucleus and micronucleus—along with elaborate patterns of feeding and excretion. Apicomplexans are largely parasitic, with complex life cycles and an apical complex enabling host cell invasion.

Ecology and significance vary by lineage. Alveolates are abundant in aquatic environments, contributing to primary production through photosynthetic dinoflagellates and forming symbiotic relationships. Some dinoflagellates cause harmful algal blooms. Apicomplexans include important parasites such as Plasmodium, the agent of malaria, and Toxoplasma gondii, affecting humans and other animals. Ciliates play central roles in microbial food webs and nutrient cycling, particularly in aquatic ecosystems and soils.

Reproduction in alveolates also ranges widely. Asexual reproduction by fission is common, while ciliates can undergo conjugation, a genetic exchange process. Apicomplexans alternate sexual and asexual stages in their life cycles, often linked to different hosts.

Overall, alveolarians are a diverse and ecologically influential group united by the shared feature of cortical alveoli.