Upanishads

The Upanishads are a collection of ancient Indian philosophical texts that form the concluding portion of the Vedas and are foundational to Hindu thought. Composed and compiled over a broad period, roughly from the 8th to the 4th centuries BCE, they were transmitted orally by diverse sages and schools. The term Upanishad is often interpreted as “sitting down near,” reflecting the teacher-student method by which these ideas were imparted.

They mark a shift from ritual instruction to systematic inquiry into the nature of reality. Core themes include Brahman, the ultimate, universal reality; Atman, the individual self; and the proposition that Atman and Brahman are ultimately one. Other central concepts are maya, the illusion of the empirical world; samsara, the cycle of birth and rebirth; and moksha, liberation from that cycle. Philosophical methods emphasized in the Upanishads include inquiry (jnana), meditation, discernment, and ethical living. Some passages employ the neti neti procedure, negating all finite notions to approach the ineffable.

The Upanishads are a diverse corpus, with a core group commonly cited as the Principal Upanishads, including Isha, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Chandogya, and Brihadaranyaka. Later texts such as Shvetashvatara are also influential. The works have profoundly shaped Vedanta and Hindu philosophy, influencing schools such as Advaita, Vishishtadvaita, and Dvaita, as well as broader Indian religious thought.

In tradition, the Upanishads are regarded as the culmination of the Vedas, offering metaphysical insight, spiritual practice, and a framework for interpreting existence.