Dvaita

Dvaita, meaning dualism, is a school of Vedanta that holds a real, eternal distinction between God, individual souls, and matter. It was founded by Madhvacharya in the 13th century in the Indian subcontinent and is closely associated with Vaishnavism, particularly in Karnataka. The system presents a sharp contrast to Advaita Vedanta’s non-dualism and to Vishishtadvaita’s qualified non-dualism.

Ontology in Dvaita posits three fundamental realities: Ishvara (God, identified with Vishnu or Narayana), Jiva (individual souls), and Ajiva (matter). These categories are eternally distinct; the world is real. Liberation involves eternal service to God while preserving individual identity, attained through divine grace and devoted worship. Devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu is central to the path of salvation.

Epistemology and practice retain a typical Vedantic framework of pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference), and sabda (scriptural testimony) as valid means of knowledge. The principal scriptures for Dvaita are the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita, with Madhvacharya’s Brahma Sutra Bhashya serving as the foundational commentary. Later expositors, such as Jayatirtha and Vyasathirtha, contributed important interpretive works and systematization.

Institutions and influence extend through a network of monasteries, notably the Ashta Matha lineage associated with Udupi, which sustain Vaishnava worship, scholarship, and monastic life. The tradition has maintained a significant presence in Karnataka and has shaped Hindu philosophical discourse, offering a distinct alternative to other Vedantic schools through its emphasis on constant duality and devotional service to Vishnu.