UNCLOS

UNCLOS, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, is an international treaty that defines the legal framework for maritime activity. Opened for signature in 1982 and entering into force in 1994, it establishes the rules governing uses of the oceans, including navigation, resource exploitation, and environmental protection. It is administered by the United Nations and supplemented by a number of implementing agreements.

Maritime zones: Territorial sea up to 12 nautical miles from baselines; contiguous zone up to 24; exclusive economic zone (EEZ) up to 200 nautical miles where coastal states have rights to natural resources; continental shelf rights extending to 200 nautical miles or beyond. Beyond national jurisdiction lies the high seas, and the Area, the deep seabed, minerals of which are governed by the International Seabed Authority (ISA).

Freedom of navigation and overflight, laying of cables and pipelines, research, and other activities are governed; states may use transit passage through straits used for international navigation; archipelagic states have special regimes within their archipelagic waters.

Dispute settlement: ITLOS, the International Court of Justice, or arbitration; UNCLOS provides procedures for settlement and adjudication; enforcement through national courts and international bodies. Part XI, regarding deep seabed mining, was revised by the 1994 Agreement to address practical and economic concerns, and the ISA administers seabed resources.

Status: Many states are party to UNCLOS; the United States has signed but not ratified; adherence varies by state. UNCLOS remains a central framework in international maritime law, influencing coastal state sovereignty, resource management, freedom of navigation, and environmental protection.