Sieges

Sieges are military campaigns in which attackers surround a fortified place to compel surrender by isolating defenders and denying them relief or supplies. The aim is to breach the defenses or wear down resistance through starvation, disease, bombardment, and psychological pressure. Sieges can last days or years and typically involve encirclement, control of access routes, and attempts to cut off outside communication.

Methods used by besiegers range from artillery bombardment and siege towers to mining, sapping, and assault ramps. In addition, blockades seek to prevent resupply and escape. Defenders respond with fortification improvements, countermining, sorties, and attempts to negotiate relief or surrender. The outcome is usually determined by breaches in walls, loss of morale, or the exhaustion of resources.

Throughout history, sieges have shaped warfare. In antiquity, sieges of cities such as Alesia and Jerusalem demonstrated encirclement as a decisive tactic. In the medieval and early modern periods, fortified towns and castles dominated warfare, culminating in sieges like Constantinople (1453) and Malta (1565). The industrial era brought heavier artillery and coordinated operations, as seen in Port Arthur (1904–05) and large-scale World War II sieges such as Leningrad and Stalingrad. In more recent conflicts, urban sieges continued to occur, including Sarajevo in the 1990s and besieged areas in various modern wars.

Legal and humanitarian considerations accompany siege warfare. International law addresses the treatment of civilians, the protection of essential goods, and the conduct of bombardment, though the effectiveness of enforcement has varied. Sieges remain a persistent element of urban and fortress warfare, differing in technology but sharing core strategic aims: to compel surrender through isolation and attrition.