Shangdi

Shangdi (Chinese: 上帝) is a term in Chinese religion and theology that translates roughly as “the Supreme Deity” or “Lord on High.” The two characters mean “above/high” and “emperor/deity.” In ancient Chinese texts, Shangdi refers to a supreme sky deity associated with the heavens and with the legitimation of political power, especially in the late Shang and Zhou periods. The term appears in oracle bone inscriptions and later in classical writings as part of the broader concept of Heaven (Tian) and the moral order upheld by ritual.

Historical interpretation varies: some scholars identify Shangdi as the principal god of the Shang rulers, whose sacrifices accompanied state rites; others view it as a general title for a high heaven deity invoked in dynastic rites. Over time, the notion of Tian as a supreme cosmic order became central in Confucian thought, while Shangdi remained a term used in ritual contexts and in some texts to designate a singular high deity. In popular religion, worship traditionally emphasized ancestors, local spirits, and various deities rather than a single personal god.

In modern usage, Shangdi is widely encountered as a translation of “God” in Chinese Bible translations. In Protestant circles, Shangdi is common; Catholic usage often employs other terms such as Tianzhu or Shen, depending on tradition. The term remains a point of linguistic and theological distinction in discussions of Chinese religion and the history of Chinese conceptions of divinity.