Microelectronics

Microelectronics is a branch of electronics that focuses on miniaturized electronic components and circuits, produced on semiconductor materials such as silicon. It covers the behavior of semiconductor devices and the processes used to fabricate integrated circuits that combine many components onto small substrates.

The field combines device physics with manufacturing technology. Key devices include transistors, diodes, and capacitors, while the fabrication toolbox features photolithography, deposition (chemical vapor, physical vapor, and atomic layer), etching, ion implantation, and planarization methods. Cleanroom environments and precision metrology underpin the production of high-yield, reproducible circuits.

Historically, microelectronics began with the invention of the transistor and the subsequent development of integrated circuits in the mid-20th century, which enabled high-density circuitry and widespread computing. Advancements in lithography and materials have driven continuous scaling, leading to complex systems-on-chips and increasingly integrated functionality.

Common device families include metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs), bipolar transistors, diodes, memory elements, microcontrollers, ASICs, and system-on-chips. Applications span computing, communications, consumer electronics, automotive systems, and medical devices, with microelectronics serving as the core of modern sensors, embedded controllers, and various embedded systems.

Fabrication challenges include power efficiency and heat dissipation, device variability, manufacturing costs, and the limits of further scaling. Trends address new materials such as silicon carbide, gallium nitride, and III-V compounds, as well as novel transistor architectures (e.g., FinFETs, gate-all-around transistors), 3D integration, and heterogeneous packaging to enhance performance and function.