Erwartungen

Erwartungen is the plural of Erwartung in German and refers to mental states in which a person anticipates a future event or outcome. They combine beliefs about how likely something is with the perceived value or relevance of that outcome. Expectations can concern concrete events (such as rain tomorrow), one’s own actions (I will finish the report by Friday), or the behavior of others (colleagues will meet the deadline).

Etymology: The term derives from the verb warten (to wait) with the prefix er- and the noun-forming suffix -ung, yielding the sense of looking forward or awaiting something.

Types: Personal expectations, social or normative expectations (how one thinks others expect one to behave), outcome expectations (likelihood and desirability of results), and process expectations (how a task should unfold). In research, expectations influence motivation, perception, and decision-making.

Formation and processes: Expectations arise from prior experience, information, goals, and cultural norms. They are shaped by cognitive processes such as probability assessment and value judgment, and can be biased by optimism, pessimism, or selective attention. They are not guarantees; the actual future may differ.

Effects and implications: High or unmet expectations can motivate planning or performance but may also cause disappointment or stress. In education, business, and relationships, managing expectations is considered important to avoid misalignment.

In psychology and management, expectancy theories describe how beliefs about the likelihood of reward or success influence effort and persistence, often framed as expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.