10th11thcentury

The 10th and 11th centuries, roughly spanning the years 900 to 1100 CE, were a transitional period in world history. Political authority was often fragmented, yet several polities expanded or consolidated into enduring states. Major centers included the Byzantine Empire, the Holy Roman Empire, Western European kingdoms, the Islamic world, and the Song Dynasty in China. Cultural and religious institutions continued to shape governance, warfare, trade, and learning across Eurasia.

In Europe, the Ottonian rulers strengthened the Holy Roman Empire, while the Viking influence waned and regional powers solidified. The Normans emerged in what would become Normandy and England after 1066. The Byzantine Empire, under Basil II and his successors, pursued restoration and territorial gains in the Balkans. In the Islamic world, dynasties such as the Fatimids and later the Seljuks controlled broad territories, while the Indian subcontinent saw the Ghaznavids and the Chola dynasty remain influential. Song China developed a centralized bureaucracy and engaged in sustained economic growth, urbanization, and technological progress.

The 11th century brought reforms and new conflicts. Western Christendom experienced the Gregorian reforms and the Investiture Controversy, contributing to the 1054 East–West Schism. The Seljuks expanded into Anatolia, culminating in the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. The Crusades began with the 1095 call by Pope Urban II, leading to the First Crusade and the capture of Jerusalem in 1099. In various regions, governance and culture continued to adapt to evolving dynastic rules, setting the stage for the high medieval era.