superkondensatory

Superkondensators (also known as supercapacitors) are electrochemical energy storage devices that bridge the gap between conventional capacitors and batteries. They store energy primarily through electrostatic charge in the electric double layer at the electrode–electrolyte interface, or by fast surface redox reactions. This yields very high power density and extremely long cycle life, but typically lower energy density than lithium-ion batteries.

Types include electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs), which use porous carbon electrodes; pseudocapacitors, which rely on fast reversible redox reactions in materials such as metal oxides or conducting polymers; and hybrid supercapacitors, which combine features of both approaches in asymmetric electrode configurations.

Performance characteristics vary with design and materials. The voltage per cell is usually limited by the electrolyte (around 2.7 V with organic electrolytes; lower with aqueous ones). Cycle life often exceeds 100,000 cycles. Energy density is commonly in the range of 5–20 Wh/kg for EDLCs, with higher values possible for pseudocapacitors, while power densities can reach several kilowatts per kilogram.

Applications include rapid power delivery for electric and hybrid vehicles, regenerative braking, uninterruptible power supplies, grid stabilization, and backup power for electronics. Materials and design choices influence cost, energy and power performance, and temperature tolerance. Carbon-based electrodes such as activated carbon, graphene, and carbon nanotubes are common, while pseudocapacitance uses materials like manganese dioxide or ruthenium oxide. Emerging materials, including MXenes and conducting polymers, are areas of ongoing research.

Overall, superkondensators complement batteries in systems requiring high power and long cycle life, with ongoing efforts to raise energy density and reduce costs.