stoicism

Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early 3rd century BCE. It teaches that virtue is the sole good and that living in accordance with nature and reason leads to eudaimonia, or flourishing. The Stoics held that the universe is rational and governed by a divine reason, or logos, and that humans, as rational beings, are part of a cosmopolitan community of nature.

The early Stoics, including Zeno’s successors Cleanthes and Chrysippus, developed a comprehensive system of ethics, physics, and logic. Later Roman adherents such as Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius popularized Stoic ideas in a practical, accessible form. A central tenet is the dichotomy of control: we should distinguish what depends on our will from what does not, and devote effort to the former while accepting the latter with equanimity.

Ethically, Stoicism holds that virtue—wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance—is the only true good. External events are neutral; our judgments about them determine whether we experience distress or serenity. Practices associated with Stoicism include daily reflection, journaling, and negative visualization to prepare for loss or hardship, all aimed at cultivating resilience and self-master.

Stoicism has influenced later philosophy, early Christian thought, and modern approaches to psychology, notably cognitive behavioral therapy, through its emphasis on examining impressions and choosing responses. It remains relevant in contemporary discussions of ethics, well-being, and personal responsibility. Some critiques note a potential misreading as endorsing passivity, though many modern interpreters stress active virtue and practical wisdom in everyday life.