relaxations

Relaxations, in science, refer to processes by which a perturbed system returns to equilibrium or a steady state. The term is used across physics, chemistry, materials science, and engineering, and is typically described by a characteristic relaxation time that quantifies the rate at which the perturbation decays.

In physics and chemistry, relaxation can occur at several levels. Electronic relaxation describes how excited electrons shed energy to the surroundings. Vibrational relaxation involves redistribution of energy among molecular vibrations, while rotational relaxation concerns the loss of rotational excitation. Spin relaxation describes the decay of magnetization in a sample, typically characterized by longitudinal (T1) and transverse (T2) times. Dielectric relaxation describes how molecular dipoles respond to an oscillating field, often modeled by Debye or non-Debye distributions. Relaxation behavior is often exponential or multi-exponential and can show Arrhenius-type temperature dependence.

In materials science and rheology, stress relaxation refers to the decay of stress under a fixed strain in viscoelastic materials. The time-dependent response is described by the relaxation modulus G(t) or the creep function J(t). Models such as Maxwell, Kelvin–Voigt, and Standard Linear Solid capture different time scales of relaxation. Experimental relaxation tests, along with time-temperature superposition, are used to characterize polymers, glasses, and other complex fluids.

In mathematics and computer science, relaxation denotes replacing a difficult problem with a simpler one by loosening constraints, making it tractable to solve. Examples include linear relaxation of integer programs and convex relaxation of non-convex problems; solutions to the relaxed problem provide bounds or approximations to the original problem.

Relxation studies provide insights into dynamics, structure, and interaction strengths across disciplines.