processors

Processors, or central processing units, are the primary computing engines in digital devices. They execute the instructions of computer programs, performing the basic operations that drive software and operating systems. A processor typically fetches an instruction from memory, decodes it to determine the required operation, and executes it using arithmetic logic units, registers, and a control unit. Modern processors also use cache memory, pipelines, and branch prediction to improve performance.

Key design features include instruction set architecture (ISA), such as x86, ARM, or RISC-V, which defines supported instructions and data sizes. Processors may be general-purpose, aiming for broad compatibility and strong single-thread performance, or specialized for embedded, mobile, or server workloads. They can be single-core or multicore, with each core capable of executing instructions independently; many cores share or have private cache hierarchies. Parallelism is extended with superscalar execution, out-of-order processing, and speculative execution to increase throughput. In addition to CPUs, other processors like GPUs and DSPs handle highly parallel or domain-specific tasks.

Most consumer devices rely on system-on-a-chip designs that integrate a processor with memory, graphics, and peripherals on a single package. Manufacturing advances reduce transistor size, improving speed and power efficiency. Common metrics include clock speed, instructions per cycle, cache size, core count, and thermal design power. The processor landscape also encompasses server processors, accelerators, and open architectures such as RISC-V, which aim to broaden access and innovation.