nationalisms

Nationalism is a political ideology and sentiment that emphasizes loyalty to a nation understood as a culturally cohesive or historic community, and often the pursuit of self-determination or sovereignty. It seeks to align political authority with perceived national belonging and mobilizes citizens through shared symbols, stories, and institutions. There are two broad strands: ethnic nationalism, which defines the nation by common ancestry and culture; and civic nationalism, which bases membership on shared laws, citizenship, and political values.

Scholars offer different explanations for its origins. Modernist accounts view nationalism as a product of industrialization and the creation of centralized states; primordialists stress deep-seated attachments to homeland. Benedict Anderson described nations as imagined communities; Eric Hobsbawm argued that traditions can be invented to sustain political projects; Anthony D. Smith stressed ethnosymbolism, linking modern nationalism to older cultural symbols. Nationalism can operate through education, media, language policy, and public rituals that reaffirm a national narrative.

Nationalism can promote social cohesion and self-government, but it can also produce exclusion, xenophobia, and conflict when defined in ethnocentric terms or used to legitimate discrimination. It has driven state-building, independence movements, and secessions, as well as wars and repression. In contemporary politics, globalization and migration interact with nationalism; some movements emphasize inclusive citizenship, while others advance ethnonationalist agendas. The study of nationalism continues to balance its role in collective identity with commitments to equal rights and liberal-democratic norms.