xenophobia

Xenophobia is the fear, dislike, or prejudice toward people or groups perceived as foreign or culturally different. It can involve negative attitudes, stereotyping, discrimination, or hostility toward immigrants, ethnic minorities, refugees, or outsiders, and can be expressed individually or institutionally. The term derives from the Greek xenos (foreigner) and phobos (fear).

Xenophobia has appeared in many societies and historical periods. It can inform or accompany policies that restrict entry, citizenship, or access to services, as well as social practices that exclude or belittle minorities. It may be reinforced by negative media representations, political rhetoric, or selective information that portrays outsiders as threats.

Causes are diverse and include perceived economic competition, threats to cultural or national identity, and in-group–out-group dynamics. Sociological explanations emphasize factors such as social identity, scapegoating, or uncertainty. Psychological theories point to fear, threat perception, or conformity pressures. Environments such as rapid change, displacement, or conflict can intensify xenophobic attitudes.

Impact can be profound: individuals face discrimination, harassment, or violence; communities experience segregation or reduced social cohesion; and policymakers may adopt restrictive or punitive measures affecting rights. Conversely, inclusive policies, education, intergroup contact, and protections for minorities can reduce xenophobic attitudes.